Lead Contamination in Russian Cities: Assessment of Risk to Children’s Health. A. A. Bykov, Russian Academy of Economics, PO box 55 Moscow, 125047, Russia; B. A. Revich, Centre of Demography and Human Ecology, Institute of the forecasting of Russian Academy of Sciences, 32 Krasikova ul., Moscow, 117418, Russia; and V. A. Akimov, Russian Institute on the Problems of Civil Defense and Extreme Events, 7 Davydkovskaia ul:, Moscow 121357, Russia
Annual industrial lead releases into the air of Russian cities vary from 1.1 to 1.6 thousand tons. In spite of the substantial decrease of lead emission last years due to reduced industrial production. The high levels of Pb concentration in the environment (PbE) are still measuring. They lead to increased Pb levels in human organism and can cause various undesirable health consequences. Children organism is especially sensitive in this case. Blood lead level (PbB) is often used as indicator of lead influence to children health, and its acceptable control level is accounted equals to 10 mcg of Pb per 100 ml of blood in children. The probability of exceeding this level of PbB defines health risk. The paper presents general results of health risk assessment of lead exposure in children, living in Russian cities. The integrated exposure uptake biokinetic model of US EPA was used for prognoses of total Pb intake with pathway differentiation; PbB of children under 7 years old; health risks on the basis of input monitoring data of PbE. The drawn model curves of PbB in dependence of PbE can be used by decision makers in forming environmental policy. Calculated PbB of children living in the cities with relatively low and middle levels PbE is very close to basic standard (10 mcg/dl). In the high contaminated cities this standard can be overdrawn twice. Estimated corresponding risk values equaled to 50% and 85%. Analysis of the contributions of different pathways in total lead exposure of children show, that the main part of PbB is determined firstly by food products, then by soil and dust and the least part - by air and drinking water. Assessments of health consequences shows the following approximate distribution of hazard: 2 min. Children in Russian cities can have problems in behavior and learning, 400 thousand will need in treatment, the health of 10 thousand children is in danger and 400 children need in immediate hospitalization. Obtained results can be putted for the ground in: planning future studies, as they showed the weak chains of existing data, monitoring and normative systems; building short- and long-time environmental policy, as they allow to define the most effective ways of health risk reduction.
The work has been done under the project "Safe for children."